Module Three: Ethics

            Lindoff (2010) addressed critical viewpoints concerning ethics in non-medical research, and strongly supported review boards, which verify the ethical soundness of a particular study prior to commencement.  According to the author, all inquiries carry the risk of harm to participants, as well as the risk of conflict of interest for researchers.  Three core principles of ethical research were discussed, and will be discussed in detail in the following section.

            In this paper, I will first define ethics in research, with ideas addressed in the literature reviewed.  Next, I will discuss a particular study that devoted itself mainly to the discussion of ethics, specifically regarding cultural minorities.  Afterwards, I will apply the findings from the literature to my area of research, with a special focus of ethical issues regarding children and refugees.  Finally, I will conclude by addressing how I will use ethical practices to apply my research at a grassroots level.

DEFINING ETHICS

            Ethics, as defined by Klein and Cobra (2010), are "decisions of a moral nature about people and their interaction in society (p. 28)."  Boyd et al. (2008) add that ethics are "the difference between right and wrong (p. 40)."  Regardless of the definition, ethics play a pivotal role in many practices, notably research.  Prior to conducting a study, researchers must gain approval from regional and/or national review boards, which scrutinize applications to make sure that inquiries are ethically sound, prior to the study's commencement.

Stuchbury and Fox (2009) discussed ethical issues in research, stating that they will arise at both macro and micro levels.  Regarding the former, the authors identified the need to collect enough data to be able to draw conclusions; in terms of the latter, they identified issues such as interview methodology.  They referenced principles outlined in the British Educational Research Association's ethical guidelines, and the Economic and Social Research Council research ethics framework, such as the principles of "respect for persons, respect for knowledge, respect for democratic values and respect for the quality of educational research (p. 497)."

According to Lindoff, the need for ethics education in research came as a response to the Nuremburg trials.  She further identified the three core principles, similar to those mentioned above, but as identified by Australia's National Review: justice, "that which is lawful and that which is equal and fair (p. 53); beneficence, "actions [are] acceptable if they minimise (sic) risks of harm and maximize possible benefits (p. 54)"; and respect for persons, "viewing individuals as autonomous agents, and protecting those with diminished authority (p. 55)."

Regarding justice, the author cautioned researchers to demonstrate fairness in selection, and to strive to the best of one's ability to treat participants equally.  Researchers may demonstrate beneficence when they ascertain that the benefits of their study likely outweigh the risks.  Respect for persons may be established through the respect for the "welfare, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage (p. 55)," of the participant, and of the population at large.  An implication of this principle, when examining the definition provided by the author, is that special attention must be given to the protection of children and adolescent participants.  I will discuss this more in the fourth section, where I will identify the importance of ethics in my own proposed research.

ETHICS IN PRACTICE: DANA-SACCO

            Dana-Sacco (2010), a Native American researcher, conducted research regarding indigenous peoples in the United States.  Her study is both similar and dissimilar to my research area.  The similarities are that the researched populations are cultural minority groups in this country, that both groups have been colonized and oppressed, and that both Dana-Sacco and I will be use emic accounts to a variable degree.  Emic (as opposed to etic) research occurs when the researcher is a member of the population being studied.  The target population in my research area consists of Haitians and Haitian-Americans, currently residing in the United States.  However, the participants for my dissertation will be Haitian youth who recently immigrated to the United States.  Therefore, I will portray a certain degree of the emic perspective.

            The dissimilarities between my research and that of the author are that indigenous people are not immigrants; Native Americans have been in the Western hemisphere for thousands of years, predating European and African arrival.  Therefore, the stress of immigration likely does not come into play with indigenous populations.

Regarding ethical praxis, Dana-Sacco advocated the researcher's self-disclosure in his/her report of information.  Self-disclosure, according to the author, "provides enough information for the reader to understand who is doing the research and what interests the researcher might have (p. 66)."   The implication is that self-disclosure provides the reader with a clearer picture of the researcher's subjectivity and/or bias, in order to make an informed decision as to the quality and transferability of the work.  In her work, the author shared a multitude of information on her background, and designed the study as a "self-examination project (p. 67)," using critical ethnography to examine community practices.  The information received from this study will be further discussed in the following section and in the conclusion of this paper.

APPLICATION TO MY RESEARCH

            As previously stated, Dana-Sacco utilized an emic perspective to examine issues in her local community.  Her discussion lends itself to several ethical issues, regarding minority populations in the United States.  Although not discussing Haitians or immigrants, I found the study helpful in considering ethics to be weighed in my future dissertation research. 

            Issues regarding children.  Since my study will include the observation and interviewing of adolescent youth, I turned to Klein and Cobra's work, which discussed ethics when dealing with participants who are not of legal age.  According to the authors, although few states have passed laws requiring parental consent for a child's participation, to fail to obtain such consent would not be an ethically sound decision, implicating that many children cannot successfully weigh the benefits and risks of participation in a study.

            Confidentiality is another ethical dilemma when working with child participants, because courts have ruled that privacy rights in minors is an "extension of parental privacy rights, and therefore [researchers] have legal obligations to the parent or guardian (Klein and Cobra, p. 30)."  Klein and Cobra suggest the inclusion of parent(s) or guardian(s) in the first contact with a child participant, to establish boundaries regarding confidentiality and to foster a sense of trust among all parties. 

Ebrahim (2010) further suggests approval from professional and academic institutions prior to the commencement of the research, in order to maintain the ethical integrity of a study.  An additional benefit of this practice is that educators can offer suggestions and perspectives, which can enhance the quality of the research.

Issues regarding refugees.  Lindorff speculated, "no researcher in any field, whether medical or non-medical wants to conduct research that is ethical or unjust, which has risks that outweigh the benefits, or which has no respect for persons (p. 53)."   This particularly comes into play when researching populations who may have suffered trauma, which many Haitians indeed have. 

Oppressive political regimes dating back to the 1960s, coupled with several recent natural disasters, have caused many Haitians to flee their homeland.  Turner and Fozdar (2010) urge researchers to be careful when studying refugee populations, in that "they may have suffered physical or psychological trauma in the process of their displacement. Additionally, they are usually finding their way in a culture vastly different from their own, and are in the process of negotiating language and cultural barriers (187-188)." 

In the aforementioned study, researchers studied adult South Sudanese refugees in Western Australian educational programs, who had to navigate issues of culture shock, language problems, racism, family disruption, and several other factors common to the refugee experience (p. 184).  As stated in the module two paper on methodology, this particular study is highly relevant to my area of research.  The section on limitations proved particularly helpful, as it alerted the readers to possible pitfalls in this area of research. 

Specifically, the researchers warned against partiality, which occurred because of the disparity among the participants' level of fluency in English.  They acknowledged their bias to give more weight to perspectives that were more clearly articulated.  In my study, I plan to circumvent this by interviewing my participants in Haitian Creole, the more widely spoken of the two official languages in Haiti.  The other language, French, is typically taught in educational settings, and usually only mastered by the upper classes.  However, Haitian Creole is fluently spoken and understood throughout the country, regardless of class.

CONCLUSION

A final caveat concerns conflicts of interest.  Lindorff describes conflicts of interest as, "any research which involves groups or collectivities [that] has the potential for conflict between this group's desires...and the researchers' interest in undertaking a research project and accurately transmitting the findings (p. 56)."  As a hypothetical example, research may reveal deficiencies within the sponsoring organization.  When outside pressure is placed upon a researcher to conceal or manipulate findings, this may be a conflict of interest.  In order to conduct ethical research, it is implied that these conflicts should be identified.  At a minimum, these conflicts should be reported to the corresponding review board at the time of application.

As Dana-Sacco stated on page 77, "our responsibility as Indigenous researchers in the collective is to engage and act to make change that will serve our communities.  Participating in maintaining the status quo usually serves colonial, assimilative interests."  This sentiment is exactly what I wish to address in my research.  At the conclusion of my research, I plan to publish and utilize my findings, hopefully to assist Haitian families with their transition to life in the United States.  However, this will not be done at the expense of cultural pride or identity; on the contrary, my wish is that the Haitian Diaspora will be further empowered, through relationships built between the home, school, and community.  Some organizations that share this vision are already established, particularly in the Miami-Dade area in Florida.  These organizations will be valuable allies for collaboration. 

 
REFERENCES

Agee, J. (2009). Developing qualitative research questions: a reflective process. International journal of qualitative studies in education.  Vol. 22, No. 4, July-August 2009. 431-447.

Boyd, W. E., Healey, R. L., Hardwick, S. W. Haigh, M., Klein, P., Doran, B., Trafford, J., and Bradbeer, J. (2008).  None of us sets out to hurt people: The ethical geographer and geography curricula in higher education. Journal of geography in higher education. Vol. 32, No 1, 37-50, January 2008.

Dana-Sacco, G. (2010).  The indigenous researcher as individual and collective.  American Indian quarterly.  Winter 2010, Vol. 34, No. 1

Ebrahim, H. (2010).  Situated ethics: possibilities for young children as research participants in the South African context.  Vol. 180 No. 3, April 2010, 289-298.

Klein, M. A., and Cobra, D. (2010).  Legal and ethical implications of working with minors in Alabama. Consent and confidentiality.  The Alabama counseling association journal. Vol. 35, No. 2.

Lindorff, M. (2010).  Ethics, ethical human research and human research ethics committees.  Australian universities review. Vol. 52, No. 1, 2010

Stuchbury, K. and Fox, A. (2009).  Ethics in educational research: Introducing a methodological tool for effective ethical analysis.  Cambridge journal of education.  Vol. 39, No. 4, December 2009, 489-504

Turner, M. and Fozdar, F. (2010).  Dependency, partiality, and questions in refugee education. Journal of educational research. 20(2), 2010.